Yulia Tyumeneva - Candidate of Sciences in Psychology, Associate Professor, Institute of Education, National Research University Higher School of Economics. Address: 20 Myasnitskaya str., 101000 Moscow, Russian Federation. E-mail: jtiumeneva@hse.ru
Irina Shkliaeva - Master of Psychology, Analyst, Moscow Center for Education Quality. Address: 9a Vtoroy Verkhniy Mikhaylovskiy pass., 115419 Moscow, Russian Federation. E-mail: irshklyaeva@gmail.com

The patterns of knowledge application in new situations are explored from the perspectives of modeling and transfer. We provide an overview of studies to compare these two conceptions and get a comprehensive idea of which psychological processes are involved in knowledge application, what will change in research and teaching practices if the conceptual frameworks change, and how these conceptions can contribute to each other. We show that analyzing the problem structure and comparing problem models in different representational systems are the key prerequisites for a successful knowledge application in both conceptions. Based on the data obtained, we draw conclusions about approaches to education promoting effective knowledge application and about training problem assessment criteria.