Awareness of Emotion Expression Rules in Older Preschoolers: Diagnostics of Cognitive and Behavioral Components
Abstract
Psychological research has established a link between the development of emotion regulation in older preschool children and the growth of their understanding of emotions. This finding has underpinned the design of numerous educational programs aimed at helping preschoolers learn display rules, such as strategies for coping with anger. However, these programs typically lack methods for assessing a child's actual ability to apply these expression rules in real-life situations.
This study aimed to develop tools for assessing how well children master emotion expression rules. Participants included 77 older preschoolers (M = 73.77 months). Methods involved interviews, observation and Test of Emotion Comprehension. The study resulted in the development of level-based frameworks for evaluating two components of a child's emotional self-regulation ability: 1) the child's knowledge of emotion expression rules, and 2) their ability to apply these rules in real situations. The framework for assessing knowledge of expression rules defines levels of proficiency based on a child's ability to recognize emotions and their expressions, identify emotion regulation strategies, and understand the importance of context-appropriate emotional displays. The framework for assessing the ability to use these rules in practice evaluates the intensity and frequency of the child's emotional reactions in real situations, as well as their readiness to consciously apply the display rules.
Downloads
References
Babaeva T.I., Rimashevskaya L.S. (2023) Socio-Emotional Development of an Older Preschooler. Moscow: Yurayt (In Russian).
Begeer S., Banerjee R., Rieffe C., Terwogt M.M., Portarst E., Stegge H., Koot H.M. (2011) The Understanding and Self-Reported Use of Emotional Display Rules in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Cognition and Emotion, vol. 25, no 5, pp. 947–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.516924
Bure R.S. (2012) Socio-Moral Education of Preschoolers: For Working with Children 3–7 Years Old. Moscow: Mosaika-Sintez (In Russian).
Bure R.S., Vorobyeva M.V., Davidovich V.N. Dudnikova S.A. (2006) Friendly Guys: Fostering Humane Feelings and Relationships among Preschoolers. Moscow: Prosveshchenie (In Russian).
Bukhalenkova D.A., Aslanova M.S., Ayrapetyan Z.V., Gavrilova M.N. (2021) Do Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs about Age-Related Emotional Development Impact Preschoolers’ Emotion Understanding? Russian Psychological Journal, vol. 18, no 2, pp. 53–66 (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2021.2.4 5
Davis E.L., Levine L.J., Lench H.C., Quas J.A. (2010) Metacognitive Emotion Regulation: Children’s Awareness that Changing Thoughts and Goal Can Alleviate Negative Emotions. Emotion, vol. 10, no 4, рр. 498–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018428
Dawel A., Ashhurst C., Monaghan C. (2023) A Three-Dimensional Model of Emotional Display Rules: Model Invariance, External Validity, and Gender Differences. Emotion, vol. 23, no 5, pp. 1410–1422. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001176
Diaz A., Eisenberg N., Valiente C., van Schyndel S., Spinrad T., Berger R. et al. (2015) Relations of Positive and Negative Expressivity and Effortful Control to Kindergarteners’ Student—Teacher Relationship, Academic Engagement, and Externalizing Problems at School. Journal of Research in Personality, vol. 67, April, pp. 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.11.002
Goropakha N.M. (1992) Pedagogical Conditions of Awareness of the Moral Value of the Rules of Behavior by Children of Younger Preschool Age (PhD Thesis), Moscow: Research Institute of Preschool Education (In Russian).
Grazzani I., Ornaghi V., Conte E., Pepe A., Caprin C. (2018) The Relation between Emotion Understanding and Theory of Mind in Children Aged 3 to 8: The Key Role of Language. Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 9, Article n0 724. https://doi.org /10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00724
Guseva U.D. (2025) Development of Emotion Comprehension in Russian Children. National Psychological Journal, vol. 20, no 3, pp. 100–114 (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.11621/npj.2025.0308
Fischer A.H., Rotteveel M., Evers C., Manstead A.S. (2004) Emotional Assimilation: How We Are Influenced by Others' Emotions. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, vol. 22, no 2, pp. 223–245. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2004-15872-007
Friedman H.S., Miller-Herringer T. (1991) Nonverbal Display of Emotion in Public and in Private: Self-Monitoring, Personality, and Expressive Cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 61, no 5, pp. 766–775. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.61.5.766
Hochschild R. (1983) The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Berkeley: University of California.
Ilyin E.P. (2001) Emotions and Feelings. Saint Petersburg: Piter (In Russian).
Izotova Е.I. (2015) Social and Cognitive Determinants of Coding of Emotions in Real and Virtual Space. Psikhologicheskie Issledovaniya, vol. 8, no 42 (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.54359/ps.v8i42.532
Ji E., Son L.K., Kim M.S. (2022) Emotion Perception Rules Abide by Cultural Display Rules. Experimental Psychology, vol. 69, no 2, pp. 83–103. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000550
Khomskaya E.D., Batova N.Ya. (1992) Brain and Emotions. Moscow: Moscow State University (In Russian).
Khukhlaeva O.V., Khukhlaev O.E., Pervushina I.M. (2022) The Path to Self: How to Preserve the Psychological Health of Preschoolers. Moscow: Genesis (In Russian).
Kiyanchenko E.A. (1999) Fostering a Conscious Attitude to the Rules of Behavior in Children Aged 5–6 Years (PhD Thesis), Moscow: Moscow State Pedagogical University (In Russian).
Kleef G.A., Côté S. (2022) The Social Effects of Emotions. Annual Review of Psychology, no 73, pp. 629–658. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-010855
Knyazeva O.L. (2005) I — You — We: A Program for the Social and Emotional Development of Preschoolers. Moscow: Mosaika-Sintez (In Russian).
Kosheleva A.D. (2003) Emotional Development of Preschoolers. Moscow: Academia (In Russian).
Leersnyder J., Boiger M., Mesquita B. (2013) Cultural Regulation of Emotion: Individual, Relational, and Structural Sources. Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 4, Article no 55. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00055
Lidak L.V. (1982) The Formation of a Culture of Communication among Older Preschool Children in the Process of Play (PhD Thesis), Leningrad: Leningrad State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen (In Russian).
Lisina M.I. (1974) The Development of Communication in Preschoolers. Moscow: Pedagogika (In Russian).
Lisina M.I. (1955) On Some Conditions for the Transformation of Reactions from Involuntary to Voluntary (PhD Thesis), Moscow: Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences (In Russian).
Lovis-Schmidt A., Ackermann L., Wascher S., Rindermann H. (2025) Programme zur Förderung emotionaler Kompetenzen in der mittleren Kindheit: Eine Metaanalyse. Zeitschrift fur Padagogische Psychologie, vol. 39, no 1–2, pp. 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652/a000371
Malanov S.V. (2015) Identifying Emotions through Language Means in Early Childhood. Cultural-Historical Psychology, vol. 11, no 2, pp. 57–67 (In Russian). https://doi.org / 10.17759/chp.2015110206
Manokara K., Fischer A., Sauter D. (2022) Display Rules Differ between Positive Emotions: Not All That Feels Good Looks Good. Emotion, vol. 23, no 1, pp. 243–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001078
Miklyaeva N.V., Semenaka S.I. (2022) Lessons of Kindness: A Comprehensive Program of Social and Communicative Development of a Child by Means of Emotional and Social Intelligence. Moscow: Arkti (In Russian).
Monakova N.I. (2021) The Development of Emotions in a Child. The Program "Journey with a Dwarf". Moscow: Rech (In Russian).
Pons F., Harris P. (2000) Test of Emotion Comprehension: TEC. Oxford: University of Oxford.
Shchetinina A.M. (1984) Children's Perception and Understanding of a Person's Emotional State (PhD Thesis), Leningrad: Leningrad State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen (In Russian).
Smirnova E.O. (1992) Conditions and Prerequisites for the Development of Voluntary Behavior in Early and Preschool Childhood (PhD Thesis), Moscow: Scientific Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology (In Russian).
Sears M.S., Repetti R.L., Reynolds B.M., Sperling J.B. (2014) A Naturalistic Observational Study of Children's Expressions of Anger in the Family Context. Emotion, vol. 14, no 2, pp. 272–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034753
Strelkova L.P. (1995) Enter the Thirtieth Kingdom: Book 1. The Beginning of the Path. Moscow: Novaya Shkola (In Russian).
Underwood M.K., Coie J.D., Herbsman C.R. (1992) Display Rules for Anger and Aggression in School-Age Children. Child Development, vol. 63, no 2, pp. 366–380.
Veraksa N.E., Veraksa A.N., Gavrilova M.N., Bukhalenkova D.A., Tarasova K.S. (2021) The Russian Version of the Test of Emotion Comprehension: Adaptation and Validation for Use in Preschool Children. Psychology. Journal of the Higher School of Economics, vol. 18, no 1, pp. 56–70 (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.17323/1813-8918-2021-1-56-70
Vygotsky L.S. (1984) Child Psychology. Moscow: Pedagogika (In Russian).
Yanitskaya E.Yu. (1984) Fostering a Culture of Communication among Older Preschool Children in Family and Kindergarten Settings (PhD Thesis), Kiev: Research Institute of Pedagogy of the Ukrainian SSR (In Russian).
Yerofeeva T.I. (1986) Pedagogical Conditions for the Formation of Friendly Relationships in Older Preschool Children (PhD Thesis), Moscow: Scientific Research Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR (In Russian).
Zaporozhets A.V. (1986) The Development of Social Emotions in Preschool Children: Psychological Research. Moscow: Pedagogika (In Russian).
Zaporozhets A.V. (1960) The Development of Voluntary Movements. Moscow: Academy of Pedagogical Sciences (In Russian).
Zaporozhets A.V., Neverovich Ya.Z. (1974) On the Question of Genesis, Functions and Structure of Emotional Processes in a Child. Voprosy Psychologii, no 6, pp. 59–74 (In Russian).
Zeman J., Garber J. (1996) Display Rules for Anger, Sadness, and Pain: It Depends on Who Is Watching. Child Development, vol. 67, no 3, pp. 957–973.
Zhou N., Smith K. V., Stelzer E., Maercker A., Xi J., Killikelly C. (2023) How the Bereaved Behave: A Cross-Cultural Study of Emotional Display Behaviours and Rules. Cognition & Emotion, vol. 37, no 5, pp. 1023–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2023.2219046
.jpg){kind=small}
